|
The Effect of Water Salinity and
Temperature on Oil Spreading Rate |
|
Researched by Lily-Anne
H. |
|
PURPOSE
The first purpose of this experiment was to determine the rate at which oil spread across the surface of water.
The second purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of temperature of the water on the rate at which oil spread across the surface of water.
The third purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of salinity level of the water on the rate at which oil spread across the surface of water.
I became interested in this idea because I had heard news reports about oil spills and saw images of volunteers who had cleaned birds covered in a tar-like substance. I was instantly concerned and decided I would take this opportunity to see how quickly responders must be at the spill site to effectively contain the oil and prevent such incidents.
The information gained from this experiment could help those responders, whether local volunteers or government agencies, to contain oil and recover it. Also citizens who live near bodies of water may be able to use this information to contain local spills on their own property or nearby bodies of water.
HYPOTHESIS
My first hypothesis was that the oil would spread at least 0.05 centimeters in radius per second.
I based my first hypothesis on an article found at gpa.unep.org/facts/fate.htm. The Global Marine Oil pollution Information Gataway states, “Only ten minutes after a spill of 1 ton of oil, the oil can disperse over a radius of 50 meters, forming a slick 10 millimeters thick.” That is approximately a 0.42 cm radius increase per 16 ounces of oil spilled per second. When 50ml is used that would be about a 0.05 cm radius increase per second.
My second hypothesis was that the colder the temperature the slower the oil would spread across water.
I based my second hypothesis on an email from Stephanie Grenon, a member of ITOPF; a company that plays a great part in the cleaning and preventing of oil spills. She stated, “Generally, the viscosity of oil will be influenced by the ambient temperature (if it is warm, it will be less viscous so it will spread more rapidly).”
My third hypothesis was that salinity would not affect the rate at which oil spreads across water.
I based my third hypothesis on another email from Stephanie Grenon. She stated, “Salinity of the water will not have any influence on the spreading of oil.”
EXPERIMENT DESIGN
The constants in this study were:
• Amount of oil used (50ml per trial)
• Size of container (56cm x 41cm x 13 cm)
• Shape of Container (rectangular)
• Amount of water used (14 liters when indicated)
• Number of repeated trials (3)
• Type of water (well water)
• Type of salt used
• Temperature of standard (21° Celsius)
• Type of Oil (Heavy Duty Straight 30 weight Pennzoil Motor Oil)
• Size of plexiglass ( at least 50cm x 80cm)
• Rate at which the oil is spilled into water
• Plexiglass height above water (7 cm)
• Syringe height above water (1 cm)
• Height of camera (90cm from ground)
The manipulated variables were the temperature of water and salinity level in water.
The responding variable was the oil-spreading rate.
To measure the responding variable, I took a plexiglass grid and put it across the top of my container. I began a video camera and “spilled” the oil by using a syringe placed through a hole in the center of the plexiglass. I did this for all the experimental trials of each experimental group. After reviewing the video in slow motion I would record the elapsed time and the two “diameters”; north to south and east to west. Using this I found the rate by taking the average “diameter” of slick divided by the seconds elapsed.
MATERIALS
| Quantity | Item Description |
| 1 | Container (56cm x 41cm x 13cm) |
| 84 liters total |
Water (14 liters when indicated) |
| 1 |
syringe |
| 1 |
video camera with timer |
| 1 |
tripod |
| 1 | thermometer |
| 1 50cm x 80cm | Plexiglass sheet |
| 1 |
Ruler |
| 1 |
Meter stick |
| 6 sheets | Polypropylene Pads (Cut into fourths) |
| 1 |
Triple Beam Balance |
| 490 grams | Sodium Chloride (table salt) |
PROCEDURES
I. Preparations
A. Fill one
container with 14 liters of water
B. Let container sit until at room temperature (21° Celsius)
C. Place the plexiglass grid on top of the container.
D. Drill a hole in the center of the plexiglass that is large enough for the nose of the syringe.
B. Let container sit until at room temperature (21° Celsius)
C. Place the plexiglass grid on top of the container.
D. Drill a hole in the center of the plexiglass that is large enough for the nose of the syringe.
II. Spill the oil, Control Group
A. Using the
tripod place video camera directly above the spill and focused on the
spill zone. Begin recording. Verbally announce and record the
test group, test series and trial.
B. Fill syringe with 50ml of motor oil. Remove the plunger. The syringe will allow for a steady rate of oil flow.
C. Wait until the oil has stopped spreading and stop the video camera.
B. Fill syringe with 50ml of motor oil. Remove the plunger. The syringe will allow for a steady rate of oil flow.
C. Wait until the oil has stopped spreading and stop the video camera.
III. Dispose of Oil and Clean-up
A. Start by
recovering the oil with polypropylene pads
B. Take the pads and put them in a doubled up trash bag.
B. Take the pads and put them in a doubled up trash bag.
IV. Use the same water for each of the three trials. Dispose of the water afterwards. (When testing brackish water just add the necessary salt for Ocean water, don’t dump the water.)
V. Repeat parts I-III to complete 3 trials.
VI. Repeat steps I-V for more series of tests with a temperature change. Make the following adjustments to the original test:
A. Do a test at
11° C
i. From the tap
fill the tub again only with 11° C. (Tap water should go down
to 11° C, if not use icepacks or place outside in colder
weather. If below after brought inside and until 11° C.)
ii. Stir the water and place the thermometer in the water. Wait until about 11° C
iii. Complete the test just as previously done in steps II-V.
ii. Stir the water and place the thermometer in the water. Wait until about 11° C
iii. Complete the test just as previously done in steps II-V.
B. Do a test at
1° C
i. Fill the tub
with the coldest water available from tap. Take icepacks and lay
it in the tub. Place outside in colder weather overnight.
In cold conditions the water should go down to 1° C.
ii. Stir the icy water and place the thermometer in the water. Wait until about 1° C
iii. Continue as in standard test parts II-V.
ii. Stir the icy water and place the thermometer in the water. Wait until about 1° C
iii. Continue as in standard test parts II-V.
C. Set up a
test for 31° C
i. Fill the
container with 31° C tap water (which should be available).
VII. Repeat steps I-IV for a third series of tests
with a change in salinity. When doing the test make the following
adjustmentsA. Do a test in
Brackish water (17.5 grams salt per liter of water)
i. After
preparing the water weigh a paper bowl (typical size is 8.5). Add
245 grams of salt to the bowl. Dump the bowl’s contents into the
water for brackish water.
ii. Stir the water to dissolve salt
iii. Continue as in standard test, steps I-II.
ii. Stir the water to dissolve salt
iii. Continue as in standard test, steps I-II.
B. Do a test in
Ocean water (35 grams salt per liter of water)
i. After
preparing the water use the bowl described in section ‘B’ and add
another 245 grams salt to the bowl. Dump into water. This
gives the total 490 grams of salt in the tub for ocean water.
ii. Stir the water to dissolve salt
iii. Continue as with standard test.
VIII. Draw a conclusion and find your average results
for each test. Compare the standard with the variables tested.ii. Stir the water to dissolve salt
iii. Continue as with standard test.
A. Once all 18
individual tests (be sure you complete 3 trials for each group) are
complete, review the video.
i. When the oil
first touches the water surface write down the time on the recorder,
minutes, seconds and frames (1/30ths of a second).
ii. When the oil reaches the determined point also be sure to record the time.
iii. Find the difference and enter it into the data table.
iv. Round the distance oil spreads north-south and east-west.
v. Average the spread distances
vi. Find the rate per second and enter it into the data table.
vii. Create graphs to represent the data.
IX. Dispose of all contaminated materials.ii. When the oil reaches the determined point also be sure to record the time.
iii. Find the difference and enter it into the data table.
iv. Round the distance oil spreads north-south and east-west.
v. Average the spread distances
vi. Find the rate per second and enter it into the data table.
vii. Create graphs to represent the data.
A. Take all
materials that have been contaminated (syringe, plexiglass, tub,
polypropylene pads, etc.) to a facility where they will be cleaned and
gotten rid of.
RESULTS
The first original purpose of this experiment was to determine the rate at which oil spread across the surface of water.
The second original purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of temperature of the water on the rate at which oil spread across the surface of water.
The third original purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of salinity level of the water on the rate at which oil spread across the surface of water.
The results of the experiment were that when 30 weight motor oil was spilled onto fresh water it spread at an average rate of 0.19 cm/sec in radius in 1 degree Celsius water. It also spread at an average rate of 0.19 cm/sec in radius in 11 degree Celsius water. It spread at an average rate of 0.16 cm/sec in radius in 21 degree Celsius water. It spread at an average rate of 0.15 cm/sec in radius in 31 degree Celsius water. When 30 weight motor oil was spilled onto brackish water at 21 degrees Celsius it spread at an average rate of 0.20 cm/sec in radius. It spread at an average rate of 0.25 cm/sec in radius in ocean water at 21 degrees Celsius.
See the table and graph below.
CONCLUSION
My first hypothesis was that the oil would spread at least 0.05 centimeters in radius per second. The results indicate that this hypothesis should be accepted, because the oil slick’s radius increased from 0.15 cm/sec to 0.25 cm/sec in radius regardless of temperature and salinity.
My second hypothesis was that the colder the temperature the slower the oil would spread across water. The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected, because the 1° water and 11° water had faster spread rates than either the 21° water or the 31° water.
My third hypothesis was that salinity would not affect the rate at which oil spreads across water. The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected, because salinity did appear to have an effect on the spreading. The fresh water (0 g/l) spill had a spread rate slower than brackish water (17.5 g/l) which was slower than ocean water (35 g/l).
After thinking about the results of this experiment, I wonder if different viscosities of oil would affect spreading, in particular would crude oil behave differently than refined oil such as the 30 weight used in this experiment. I also wonder if the amount of oil spilled would affect spreading. It seems that the amount spilled should somehow determine the maximum size of the slick, but would it also affect the speed of spreading? I also wonder if the temperature and salinity affect the final thickness of the oil slick.
If I were to conduct this project again, I would do more trials per treatment. I would test more variations of temperature and salinity. I would spill a larger volume of oil, maybe 200ml for example. I would find a more effective way to know when the oil first hit the water in each trial. I would also release the oil in a more instantaneous manner.
|
Introduction
Oil or petroleum is a very valuable resource in today’s world. Many people depend on it for everyday activities. Forty percent of the world’s energy supply is from oil. Nearly 40% of that goes to the US alone. Many today are worried we are going to run out of this precious, black, tar-like substance that runs our cars and businesses. Oil is toxic. It is easily taken for granted because of its everyday use but this material is deadly to the earth. Exhaust from gasoline enters the air that surrounds us. Oil leakage can seep onto concrete, into rainwater drains, or into the soil. Finally some oil is even spilled at sea when being transported. This spilling of oil is probably the one thing that can grab the world’s attention. Tons of oil are spilled as tons are shipped for our everyday uses. The focus of this report is on oil spills, what happens during these spills, along with how water can affect the results of a spill. Part I: Oil
Spills
Background Information An oil spill is when oil or petroleum is released, usually into a marine ocean environment, though it may also be in a body of fresh water. This release can be intentional or unintentional, natural or because of human action. Oil Composition Oil is made from hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon is when two chemicals, carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) combine. Carbon atoms combine in easily formed molecules shaped like rings, chains or branches; the hydrogen atoms attach themselves to these molecules. The hydrocarbons in petroleum can exit as gases, liquids or solids depending on the temperature and pressure. Smaller molecules seem to exit as gases. Gasses cam be found at the top of a petroleum deposit or dissolved in a liquid. Hydrocarbons with five or more molecules seem to be found in liquid form. Very large hydrocarbons are seen as solids. The number of molecules and form of oil determine the viscosity or resistance to spread. The lower viscosity the faster the oil will spread. A light crude oil for example will spread faster than heavy crude that has the higher viscosity. Along with hydrocarbons there are other “impurities” that are in an oil compound. These could be sulfur or asphaltene for example. Causes of Spills Once again oil spills can be natural or from human action. Natural spills are from natural causes like leakage. Natural leakage is when there is a geographic seepage in the ocean floor that allows the oil stored underneath leak into the water columns above. Human action cause spills because of the everyday use of oil in today’s society. Our dependency means more oil is collected and more oil is distributed in the world. Human actions have a great hand in polluting the world’s waters with oil. However, it is found that most of the oil spilled is actually natural leakage or oil run off, very little is from tankers. Oil run-off, although not considered an “oil spill,” still allows oil into an ecosystem where harm can be done. This happens when humans allow a car to leak oil onto pavement. This oil leaves a sheen (rainbow effect) on the pavement and most of it seeps into drains that flow into the ocean or bodies of fresh water. Oil run-off from machinery at a farm or business also leaks into drains or into the soil. The oil found in soil can then seep into our ground water supply depending on the soil, oil type, distance to groundwater and amount of rain. This is a rare situation, but it is still possible. Another main cause of oil spills is from tankers. This is probably the most recognized type of spill. Because of society’s need of oil, tankers are used to transport the oil. These tankers can crash or the hull can be torn. This allows tons of oil to freely enter the water column. A tanker spill can be from machinery problems or human carelessness. Of all oil spills, human error causes 46% and equipment failure is responsible for 34%. For every 1,000 tons of oil used 1 ton is emptied into the ocean. Out of that one ton two-thirds of it are from everyday things like a car leaking oil. Only one-third is an actual oil spill. Another statistic shows that approximately 2.5 billion pounds of oil is spilled annually. Hazards of Spills From the Exxon Valdez spill it is now known that an oil spill can cause much more damage than first anticipated. Effects on the marine environment are notable even with less than 1 part per billion of oil present. The lighter more volatile substances in oil such as benzene are highly toxic to the marine environment but are easily evaporated. Heavier components also play their part. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH’s) are less toxic but seem to do the greatest damage because they last longer than the highly volatile components. Oil spills are very dangerous to marine wildlife. The main danger of oil spills to animals is that the sticky oil may coat the animal. Because of this birds’ feathers can be weighted down. This can result in hypothermia, sinking and drowning or becoming easy prey. Young seals can also suffer hypothermia or drown. Also their scent can be disguised leaving them orphaned. Something else that can drastically affect animals is if they swallow oil. This can cause ulcers or bleeding in the animal’s stomach. Oil can damage a food chain by predators eating contaminated prey. Animal’s airways or lungs become clogged from oil too. A spill can interfere with breeding, and cause blindness or eye problems, irritation or ulceration in skin, mouth or nasal cavities, and red blood cell damage. Also oil can be damaging to a whale’s baleen, or poison a young whale calf with its mother’s milk. That is just a few of the many interconnected problems that can occur during an oil spill. Preventing and Treating an Oil Spill Today there have been changes to help prevent great damage when an oil spill occurs. Government workers responsible for maintaining control over oil spills have better training along with those who work onboard tankers. New equipment is being developed. Some equipment today is even supposed to predict how long it will be before another big spill occurs in a certain area. Tankers are being improved with double hulls and a more careful crew. However until our dependency on oil ends there will still be oil spills. Some of the materials used to clean, collect and contain oil spills are listed below along with their purposes. o Booms- Booms are floating barriers that contain an oil spill. Booms have three main parts. The skirt is a netting used to keep oil from slipping underneath the boom. There is freeboard that rises above water to contain the oil and prevent spilling over. A chain of cable is used to stabilize the boom. o Skimmers- Are devices that float and basically skim the water for oil that is stored in a compartment inside the device. The skimmer blots oil with a sorbent and physically separates the oil and water. These devices however become easily clogged and do not last with a large spill or rough seas. o Vacuums/Pumps- Specialized vacuums or pumps can “suck up” oil and contaminated water to be cleaned. These are usually used to keep oil off the beaches or to collect the oily water that is collected on the beach itself. o Releasing Chemicals- Chemicals can be released into water to change how the oil behaves. Emulsion Breakers break down emulsions so that the oil can be removed more easily from the environment. Gelling agents can increase oil thickness and decrease spreading. Herders are collecting agents. Neutralizing agents react with the oil to create less harmful liquids. Sinking agents let the oil sink. Viscoelastic Additives include solidifying gelling agents that convert oil and makes it easier for the oil to be collected in nets but this process takes too much time. o Sorbents- Sorbents are used to absorb the oil for disposal. Sorbents can be chemicals or a material object such as polypropylene. Also sorbents are lightweight, inexpensive but sometimes can sink when heavy with oil. Polypropylene pads are layed over an oil slick and the material soaks up the oil into its fibers. These pads can be collected and properly disposed of. o Burning- The burning of oil allows for 98% of the oil spill to burn away. This “in-situ” burning however is also a threat to the environment. The smoke and gasses released from a fire could be a threat, though it is unproven what effect burning has on an ocean environment or its extent of damage. o Dispersants- Dispersants are to help the oil during its spreading. Dispersants are chemicals sprayed over the spill by aircraft and break up the compounds in oil. o Bioremediation- Bioremediation occurs when organisms eat oil naturally. These organisms digest the oil they can and get rid of it as waste. This process is slow and is sped up by adding nutrients. The waste also contains minerals. The minerals left in the water column increases algae growth. As the algae die they lower the oxygen rates of the water. This creates even more harm to the environment. Part
II: Oil on Water
Spreading or Distribution The instant oil hits a surface it begins to spread or distribute itself. Gravity, surface tension, wind, waves, currents and oil viscosity affect distribution or spreading. It is said that in 10 minutes after a 1-ton spill, the spill’s radius will be over 50 meters with a thickness of about 1 millimeter. The conditions of such a spill are not provided, just the fact that oil can spread rather quickly over water’s surface. Gradually the oil’s compounds will break up or the oil will separate into small droplets and disperse into the water column. The large droplets will rise and sink again as smaller droplets. Eventually there is another slick made from small oil droplets that rise. Dissolution Dissolution is when oil dissolves into the water. As oil spreads, the water- soluble substances dissolve into the water and the oil spreading begins to slow down as more of the oil’s components are lost. Emulsions and Oxidation Oxidation and Emulsion occur when oil mixes with another substance. Theses two forms of weathered oil are actually very similar. Emulsions happen when oil and water mixes. The strongest are 30%-80% water. The remaining material is oil. Emulsions are often referred to as “chocolate mousse.” Oxidation is a chemical reaction between oil and oxygen. This can create a tar ball for example. Biodegradation Biodegradation is when organisms eat the oil, and take nutrients from it and dispose of it as waste. This gets rid of the oil but leaves items that don’t digest at the sea floor. Evaporation Many of oil’s lighter compounds evaporate. Some of these compounds could be petrol, kerosene and diesel. These compounds start to evaporate within 25 hours. Sedimentation and Weathering Sedimentation or sinking occurs when the oil has a density of more than one in fresh or brackish water. This includes crude oils. However sea water density is 1.025. Only very few heavy crudes can sink in these conditions unless weathering has occurred. Also if oil is burned some residue is heavy enough to sink. When the oil has been on the water’s surface after a time it tends to thicken or weather. Weathered oil can be emulsions or oxidized tar balls for example. Part
III: Water
Surface Tension “In physics, surface tension is an effect within the surface layer of a liquid that causes the layer to behave as an elastic sheet.” From “Wikipedia” located at: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_Tension>. Surface tension is, as described above, when the surface of a liquid, specifically water, is forced to behave as a “sticky” substance. This is caused by the attraction between the molecules found in a liquid. These molecules are pulled equally in all directions by the other liquid molecules. This leaves a net force of zero. Molecules at the surface are pulled in by the molecules deeper within the liquid. As there are not any liquid molecules outside the surface there is nothing to balance out this pull. So the surface molecules now have to be balanced by the resistance of the liquid to be subject to the inward pull. There may also be a small outward attraction from the air molecules. The air is much less dense however and does not have a major effect. Temperature To define temperature “heat” must be understood. Heat and temperature are not the same thing. Heat is specifically the internal energy of an object. All the atoms or molecules of an object move. Internal energy is how much energy these particles contain as they move. The more violently the particles move, the more energy. This energy determines how hot or cold something is. Temperature is the measurement used to define the amount of energy or heat of an object. Salinity Salt is scientifically called sodium chloride. Salt though in reality is an ionic compound full of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions. The product is therefor neutral. Solutions of salt in water are electrolytes. These electrolytes can conduct electricity. Salinity is generally defined as the salt content of bodies of water. Fresh water such as rivers, lakes, and streams have less than 0.05% salt. Anything over that is called brackish water until ocean water. Ocean water is approximately 3.5% salt (35 grams of salt per liter of water) Salinity is measured in Practical Saline Unites or psu. Psu determines the conductivity ratio of sea water to a KCl (K=potassium, Cl=chloride) solution. The ratio has no unit, so 35 psu is equal to 35 grams per liter. Summary
Overall oil spills are a major threat to the environment because it is so toxic. Thus people need to be careful about their use of oil. Oil can be spilled by run-off, leakage or tanker spills. The more oil is used, the more likely a large spill will occur. Oil is made of hydrocarbons. Along with these hydrocarbons there are impurities in the oil. Oil is refined at factories in order to get rid of these impurities for everyday use. Oil collected from reservoirs is called crude. These have more impurities and are less able to spread out. This is how viscous the oil is. Spilled oil can be recovered or disposed of by booms, skimmers, sorbents, pumps, chemicals, in-situ burning, dispersants or by bioremediation. Once on water oil will spread or distribute itself on the surface, dissolve (some of the components), emulsify, oxidize, degrade by organisms, evaporate, settle, or weather. Surface tension is when a liquid behaves like an “elastic sheet.” This is caused by an improper balance between inward and outward forces. Salinity is the amount of salt dissolved into water. Temperature is the measurement of heat. Considering the amount of oil used by societies world-wide, it is extremely important to avoid oil spills. Since some spills will occur anyway it is critical to know how spills spread and how to best recover the oil. |
|
Beck, Robert F. "Tanker," World Book Encyclopedia, 2002. “Behavior of Oil Which Has Been Spilled at Sea.” Behavior of Oil. November 9, 2005 <http://www.oil-spill-web.com/handbook/1.htm#oil%20which%20has%20been%20spilled%20at%20sea>. Catania, Peter J. “Energy Supply.” World Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc. 12 Oct. 2005 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar181250>. Chertow, Marian R. “Environmental Pollution.” World Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc. 12 Oct. 2005 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar182428>. Economides, Michael J. "Petroleum." World Book Online Reference Center. 2006. World Book, Inc. 18 Jan. 2006 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar425600>. “Metric Conversions Chart” NDT resource Center February 1, 2006 <http://www.ndt-ed.org/GeneralResources/Units/ConversionChart.htm>. “Fate of Marine Oil Spills.” ITOPF. October 26, 2005 <http://www.itopf.com/fate.html>. Gordon, Arnold L. "Ocean," World Book Encyclopedia, 2002. Grenon, Stephane. <StephaneGrenon@itopf.com> “RE: 6th Grade Science Project.” November 16, 2005. Personal e-mail. "Oil," World Book Encyclopedia, 2002. “Oil Spill Clean-Up.” October 27, 2005 <http://www.ucs.lousiana.edu/~hxk6110/PageThree.html>. “Oil Spills.” Emergency Response. August 16, 2005 <http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/topics_subtopic_entry.php?RECORD_KEY%28entry_subtopic_topic%20=entry_id,subtopic_id,topic_id&entry_id(entry_subtopic_topic)=184&subtopic_id(entry_subtopic_topic)=8&topic_id(entry_subtopic_topic)=1>. “Oil Spills” Wikipedia. January 18, 2006. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_Spills>. Patin, Stanslav. “Environmental Impact of the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry.” October 26, 2005 <http://www.offshore-environment.com/oil.html>. “Salinity” Wikipedia. January 25, 2006. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinity>. “Salt” Wikipedia. January 25, 2006. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt>. “Sea Water” Wikipedia. January 25, 2006. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_water>. “Surface Tension” Wikipedia. January 18, 2006. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_Tension>. “The Effects of Oil on Wildlife” Marine Environment Protection. January 13, 2006 <http://www.amsa.gov.au/marine_environment_protection/educational_resources_and_information/teachers/the_effects_of_oil_on_wildlife.asp>. “US EPA.” Response Techniques. December 23, 2004 <http://ww.epa.gov/oilspill/oiltech.htm>. “What Happens to Oil in Water?” Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Getaway. November 9, 2005 <http://www.gpa.unep.og/facts/fate.html>. |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people for helping make my project possible:
• My parents for allowing me to experiment in oil in their precious kitchen.
• Mr. Newkirk for correcting rough drafts and setting an expectation to meet.
• Professor Yapa Poojitha for allowing me to call and ask for advice.
• Will Strand from the Department of Ecology for donating polypropylene pads.
• Stephane Grenon, Chris Coffin, Will Strand, Eric Williams, Yapa Poojitha, Mark Dirx, Paul Meyers, Matthew Quinney, and Norman Hepner for generous emails full of advice.
• My regular teachers for allowing small exceptions when extra time on the project was needed.
• My peers for their advice and support.
Top of page