Researched by Sierra S.
2002-03

• PURPOSE 
• HYPOTHESIS 
• EXPERIMENT DESIGN 
• MATERIALS 
• PROCEDURES 
• RESULTS 
• CONCLUSION 

• RESEARCH REPORT 
• BIBLIOGRAPHY 
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

• ABOUT THE RESEARCHER 

INTRODUCTION
Wind loads, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, have been known to cause major destruction to homes and other structures. Some architects have a theory that dome structures would resist the drag from these wind loads better than cube and A-frame shaped structures, meaning that the occupants would be much safer.

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURAL MATERIALS
Many different materials have been used in architecture throughout the years. Steel became common in the 19th century and was used to build stronger frames. Waterproof cement, the main ingredient in today’s concrete, was invented in the 19th century and became common. In the 20th century, aluminum became popular, being it was a lightweight and "low maintenance" material. Wood, however, has been the most used material for centuries.

Some societies  that don’t have enough (if any) of these materials would dry things like soil in the sun or bake them in kilns to make bricks and tiles for their structures.

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE
Ancient architecture can be split into 2 categories;  "Indigenous Architecture" (self-developed methods of building in a local environment) and "Classical Architecture" (the techniques of Greece and Rome).

INDIGNEOUS ARCHITECTURE
Assyrian City in Khorsabad (located in Mesopotamia) was constructed with clay and bricks under the reign of Sargon II who ruled from 722 B.C. to 705 B.C. This city was unearthed around 1842 and a good portion of its plan was discovered and used as a sort of starting point for the education of Mesopotamian architecture until cities like Babylon, which are much older than Assyrian, were dug up in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Another culture that was developed early on was that of the Egyptians. Their monuments were constructed of limestone, granite, and sandstone. Each Pharaoh would have a personalized tomb built using these materials. The tombs later evolved into mastabas, rectangular objects made of brick and stone, around 2680 B.C. Mastabas were later replaced by "step-pyramids" which were finally replaced by regular pyramids. The largest pyramids existing today are located in Giza and belong to Khufu (this pyramid was built around 2570 B.C.) and Khafre (this pyramid was constructed around 2530 B.C).

In Southeast Asia, there are Buddhist temples called "wats". The largest of these structures, the Angkor Wat, was created in the 12th century during the Khmer dynasty in Cambodia. This structure is 200 feet tall and has a 600 feet bridge that stretches over the moat.

CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
The Romans first discovered the dome, which was sturdier than some of their existing structures. They planned to build throughout the Mediterranean using material s such as bricks, concrete, stone, marble, and mosaic. The Romans managed to construct things like roads, canals, and bridges.

THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
Monks were the first people to construct churches. Some early Christian churches that are still standing in Rome are San Clemente, Sant’ Agnese Fuor le Mura, and Sant’ Sabina. Hagia Sophia, the church of holy wisdom, is located in Istanbul. It was constructed is 532 and belonged to Eastern Emperor Justinian the 1st and gave an excellent example of how to place a large dome on a square plane. 

HURRICANES
Hurricanes got their name from the West Indian word "hurracan" meaning "big winds". These storms occur a lot in low-pressure areas. They start when humid air rises at a fast speed, collecting moisture as it rises. When the moisture condenses, clouds are formed. The clouds then produce rain. At this point, the heat descends, rises, and then fans out in a sort of cycle. Air is then pulled inward and begins to rotate (if it’s in the Northern Hemisphere, it rotates counterclockwise;  in the Southern Hemisphere, however, it rotates clockwise).

These monstrous storms often have waves at-least 50 feet high over water and around 20 feet against the shore. The eye (the center of the storm that has the lowest amount of pressure) usually takes one hour to move from one point to another. In the eye, the wind is around 10-20 mph versus the rest of the storm with winds around 75-180 mph. These storms are often near the equator and last approximately 13 days during which time communities, even those 100 miles away, can receive 6-12 inches of rain.

FORCE
Force causes change in movement and form. There are 2 forces, no contact and mechanical. No contact forces are like electricity, gravity, and magnetism. Mechanical forces need to make contact with an object in order to effect it. The weakest force is gravitation.  Next in line is weak nuclear force (weak interaction), then electromagnetism and finally, the strongest is the strong nuclear force (strong interaction). These are the 4 base forces that scientists claim all other forces originate from.

The total amount of forces being applied to an object is called the net force. When the net force is unbalance, the object moves. When they are balanced the object remains at rest. If all the forces are acting the same way then the object they are being applied to will move in that direction. If the forces are not acting in the same direction, then the object will move in the direction of the greater force.

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•  Anthes, Richard A. "Hurricanes and Typhoons". Academic American Encyclopedia. 1997
•  Bayley, Stephan and Pepper, Simon. "Architecture". Academic American Encyclopedia. 1997
•  Benford, Gregory. "Force". The World Book Encyclopedia. 1998. Volume 7. pgs.369-371
•  Culpepper, Tom. Phone Interview. 11/13/02
•  Engelbert, Phillis. The Complete Weather Resource Volume 2: Weather Phenomena. U.X.L. 1997
•  Lauber, Patricia. Hurricanes: Earth’s Mightiest Storms. Singapore. Scholastic Inc. 1996